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Man between nascency and puberty

Biologically, a child (plural children) is a human existence between the stages of birth and puberty,[1] [two] or between the developmental catamenia of infancy and puberty.[3] The legal definition of kid generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the historic period of majority.[1] Children generally have fewer rights and responsibilities than adults. They are classed as unable to brand serious decisions.

Child may also describe a relationship with a parent (such as sons and daughters of any age)[four] or, metaphorically, an potency figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can besides signify existence strongly affected by a specific time, identify, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a kid of the Sixties".[5]

Biological, legal and social definitions

Children playing brawl games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD

Biologically, a kid is a person between nascency and puberty,[1] [two] or between the developmental flow of infancy and puberty.[iii] Legally, the term kid may refer to anyone below the historic period of bulk or another age limit.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Kid defines kid as "a human being below the age of xviii years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier".[vi] This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term child may also refer to someone beneath some other legally defined age limit unconnected to the historic period of majority. In Singapore, for example, a child is legally defined as someone nether the age of fourteen under the "Children and Immature Persons Human action" whereas the age of majority is 21.[7] [8] In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the historic period of 21.[9]

Some English definitions of the discussion child include the fetus (sometimes termed the unborn).[10] In many cultures, a kid is considered an adult later on undergoing a rite of passage, which may or may not stand for to the time of puberty.

Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always exist nether the care of a responsible adult or kid custody, whether their parents divorce or not. Recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to sally in the 16th and 17th centuries. Club began to chronicle to the child non as a miniature adult but every bit a person of a lower level of maturity needing developed protection, beloved and nurturing. This change can be traced in paintings: In the Middle Ages, children were portrayed in art every bit miniature adults with no childlike characteristics. In the 16th century, images of children began to larn a distinct childlike appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were shown playing with toys and later on literature for children also began to develop at this time.[11]

Developmental stages of childhood

Early childhood

Children playing the violin in a grouping recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011

Child playing piano, 1984

Early babyhood follows the infancy phase and begins with toddlerhood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently.[12] While toddlerhood ends around age iii when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the historic period of 7. Nevertheless, according to the National Association for the Education of Young Children, early on babyhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and back up the development process of the child, which and then will atomic number 82 to the kid's autonomy. Also during this stage, a stiff emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children likewise start preschool and kindergarten at this age: and hence their social lives.

Heart childhood

Middle childhood begins at around age seven, approximating primary school age. It ends with puberty (around age 12 or xiii), which typically marks the starting time of adolescence. In this period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to go more independent and enhance their individuality. During heart childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children.[thirteen] Upon the entrance of schoolhouse, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: autism, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and ADHD.[fourteen] : 303–309 Special pedagogy, least restrictive surround, response to intervention and individualized instruction plans are all specialized plans to assistance children with disabilities.[xiv] : 310–311 Eye babyhood is the fourth dimension when children brainstorm to empathise responsibility and are starting time to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come up at this time, and and so does social comparing.[14] : 338 Along with social comparison comes social play. With social play comes learning and pedagogy. During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation.[xv]

Adolescence

Adolescence is usually adamant to be betwixt the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: by and large corresponding to the teenage years (13-19). However, puberty normally begins earlier the teenage years. Although biologically a kid is a human being beingness between the stages of birth and puberty,[i] [2] adolescence is accepted past some cultures equally a part of social childhood, because nigh adolescents are considered minors under the law. The onset of adolescence brings almost various concrete, psychological and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and the offset of adulthood varies by country and past function, and even within a single nation-country or culture in that location may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to exist entrusted by society with certain tasks.

History

During the European Renaissance, artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not affect the social attitude to children much, withal.[16]

During the 1600s, the concept of babyhood began to emerge in Europe.[17] Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher John Locke was peculiarly influential in defining this new mental attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the tabula rasa, which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with right notions. During the early flow of capitalism, the rise of a large, commercial middle grade, mainly in the Protestant countries of the Dutch Democracy and England, brought about a new family unit ideology centred around the upbringing of children. Puritanism stressed the importance of individual conservancy and concern for the spiritual welfare of children.[18]

The mod notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th century Enlightenment and the Romantic period that followed it.[19] [20] Jean Jacques Rousseau formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel Emile: or, On Education. Edifice on the ideas of John Locke and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood every bit a brief period of sanctuary earlier people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.[19] Sir Joshua Reynolds' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting The Age of Innocence, emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of the posing child and soon became a public favourite.[21]

The thought of childhood equally a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early on Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a circuitous mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".[20] This Romantic conception of childhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has a longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of babyhood circulating, for instance, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet Henry Vaughan (e.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity.[22]

With the onset of industrialisation in England in 1760, the divergence betwixt high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly credible. By the belatedly 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and equally chimney sweeps,[23] often working long hours in dangerous jobs for depression pay.[24] Equally the century wore on, the contradiction betwixt the conditions on the ground for poor children and the center-form notion of childhood as a time of simplicity and innocence led to the first campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children.

British reformers attacked child labor from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by Charles Dickens.[25] The campaign eventually led to the Factory Acts, which mitigated the exploitation of children at the workplace[23] [26]

Modern concepts of childhood

The modern attitude to children emerged by the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family and the sanctity of the child, – an attitude that has remained ascendant in Western societies ever since.[27] The genre of children's literature took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to the child'southward imagination. Lewis Carroll's fantasy Alice'south Adventures in Wonderland, published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first "English language masterpiece written for children", its publication opened the "Beginning Golden Historic period" of children's literature.

The latter half of the 19th century saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children beyond Europe, which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools.[28] [29] The market economy of the 19th century enabled the concept of babyhood as a time of fun, happiness, and imagination. Manufacturing plant-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played by the boys.[thirty] The Male child Scouts was founded by Sir Robert Baden-Powell in 1908,[31] which provided young boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing graphic symbol, citizenship, and personal fettle qualities.[32]

In the 20th century, Philippe Ariès, a French historian specializing in medieval history, suggested that childhood was non a natural phenomenon, but a cosmos of club in his 1960 book Centuries of Childhood. In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and schoolhouse records, finding that before the 17th-century, children were represented every bit mini-adults.

In 1966, the American philosopher George Boas published the book The Cult of Childhood. Since then, historians have increasingly researched childhood in by times.[33]

In 2006 Hugh Cunningham, published the book Invention of Babyhood looking at British childhood from the twelvemonth grand, the Center Ages to what he refers to every bit the Post War Period of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.[34]

Childhood evolves and changes as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. In the mod era, many adults believe that children should not have whatever worries or work, as life should be happy and trouble-free. Babyhood is seen as a mixture of simplicity, innocence, happiness, fun, imagination, and wonder. It is thought of as a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a globe without much adult interference.[nineteen] [20]

A "loss of innocence" is a common concept, and is ofttimes seen as an integral part of coming of age. It is usually thought of as an experience or flow in a child'southward life that widens their awareness of evil, hurting or the world around them. This theme is demonstrated in the novels To Impale a Mockingbird and Lord of the Flies. The fictional graphic symbol Peter Pan was the apotheosis of a childhood that never ends.[35] [36]

Good for you childhoods

Part of parents

Children's health

Children's health includes the physical, mental and social well-existence of children. Maintaining children'due south health implies offering them good for you foods, insuring they get enough sleep and practise, and protecting their safe.[37] Children in certain parts of the earth often suffer from malnutrition, which is ofttimes associated with other weather, such diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria.[38]

Kid protection

Kid protection, co-ordinate to UNICEF, refers to "preventing and responding to violence, exploitation and corruption against children – including commercial sexual exploitation, trafficking, child labour and harmful traditional practices, such equally female genital mutilation/cutting and child marriage".[39] The Convention on the Rights of the Child protects the fundamental rights of children.

Play

Dancing at Mother of Peace AIDs orphanage, Zimbabwe

Play is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children.[xl] It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ideals and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination. Playing and interacting with other children, every bit well as some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, conflicts and resolutions. However, adults tend to (often mistakenly) assume that well-nigh all children'southward social activities can be understood equally "play" and, furthermore, that children's play activities do not involve much skill or endeavor.[41] [42] [43] [44]

It is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, acquisition their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or developed caregivers.[forty] Undirected play allows children to larn how to piece of work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to larn self-advocacy skills. Yet, when play is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them. This is especially true in developing inventiveness, leadership, and group skills.[twoscore]

Play is considered to be so important to optimal child evolution that it has been recognized by the United nations Committee on Human being Rights as a right of every child.[45] Children who are existence raised in a hurried and pressured manner may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play.[40]

The initiation of play in a classroom setting allows teachers and students to interact through playfulness associated with a learning experience. Therefore, playfulness aids the interactions betwixt adults and children in a learning environment. "Playful Construction" means to combine informal learning with formal learning to produce an effective learning experience for children at a young age.[46]

Even though play is considered to be the almost important to optimal kid development, the environment affects their play and therefore their development. Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they feel less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more than authoritarian. Children from low income families are less likely to have access to books and computers which would enhance their evolution.[47]

Street culture

Children in front end of a picture palace, Toronto, 1920s.

Children's street culture refers to the cumulative culture created by young children and is sometimes referred to as their secret world. It is most common in children betwixt the ages of seven and twelve. It is strongest in urban working class industrial districts where children are traditionally gratis to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision. It is invented and largely sustained by children themselves with little adult interference.

Young children's street civilisation ordinarily takes identify on quiet backstreets and pavements, and forth routes that venture out into local parks, playgrounds, scrub and wasteland, and to local shops. Information technology often imposes imaginative status on certain sections of the urban realm (local buildings, kerbs, street objects, etc.). Children designate specific areas that serve every bit breezy coming together and relaxation places (see: Sobel, 2001). An urban area that looks faceless or neglected to an adult may have deep 'spirit of place' meanings in to children. Since the advent of indoor distractions such as video games, and television, concerns take been expressed about the vitality – or even the survival – of children's street civilisation.

Geographies of childhood

The geographies of childhood involves how (adult) society perceives the idea of babyhood, the many means developed attitudes and behaviors bear on children's lives, including the environment which surrounds children and its implications.[ citation needed ]

The geographies of childhood is like in some respects to children's geographies which examines the places and spaces in which children live.[48]

Nature deficit disorder

Nature Arrears Disorder, a term coined by Richard Louv in his 2005 book Last Child in the Woods, refers to the trend in the The states and Canada towards less time for outdoor play,[49] [l] resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems.[51]

With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and idiot box, children have more than reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring. "The average American child spends 44 hours a week with electronic media".[52] Enquiry in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of National Park visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children.[53] The media has accelerated the trend for children'due south nature disconnection by deemphasizing views of nature, as in Disney films.[54]

Age of responsibility

The age at which children are considered responsible for their guild-leap actions (e. one thousand. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time,[55] and this is reflected in the manner they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded every bit not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years quondam were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at the time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing.[56] Minimum employment age and spousal relationship age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is too disputed at the international level.[57]

Educational activity

Children in an outdoor classroom in Bié, Angola

Children seated in a Finnish classroom at the schoolhouse of Torvinen in Sodankylä, Finland, in the 1920s

Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life.[58] Formal pedagogy near frequently takes identify through schooling. A right to instruction has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Commodity thirteen of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of anybody to an education.[59] Education is compulsory in almost places upward to a certain age, but attendance at school may non be, with alternative options such as home-schooling or e-learning being recognized as valid forms of didactics in sure jurisdictions.

Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are oftentimes kept out of schoolhouse, or attend only for short periods. Data from UNICEF indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than than 20% of African children have never attended chief schoolhouse or have left without completing primary teaching.[sixty] According to a UN report, warfare is preventing 28 meg children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools.[61] Other factors that go on children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school.[62] [63]

Attitudes toward children

Group of breaker boys in Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911. Child labor was widespread until the early 20th century. In the 21st century, child labor rates are highest in Africa.

Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and modify over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children plant that Italy was more child-centric and holland less kid-axial, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and Due west Germany falling in betwixt.[64]

Child matrimony

In 2013, child spousal relationship rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in India.[65] According to a 2019 UNICEF report on kid marriage, 37% of females were married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed past South Asia at xxx%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle Due east and North Africa (xviii%), and Eastern Europe and Primal Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and N America were minimal.[66] Child spousal relationship is more than prevalent with girls, only also involves boys. A 2018 written report in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.five% of males are married before age 18, with the Central African Republic having the highest average charge per unit at 27.9%.[67]

Fertility and number of children per woman

Earlier contraception became widely bachelor in the 20th century, women had little option other than forbearance or having often many children. In fact, current population growth concerns have simply become possible with drastically reduced child bloodshed and sustained fertility. In 2017 the global total fertility rate was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman,[68] calculation virtually lxxx 1000000 people to the earth population per year. In order to measure the full number of children, scientists frequently prefer the completed accomplice fertility at age 50 years (CCF50).[68] Although the number of children is as well influenced past cultural norms, religion, peer pressure and other social factors, the CCF50 appears to be most heavily dependent on the educational level of women, ranging from 5-8 children in women without teaching to less than 2 in women with 12 or more than years of teaching.[68]

Bug

Emergencies and conflicts

Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the health, safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. wars and natural disasters. Equally of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced past armed conflicts and violence around the world.[69] Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offer the sensitive and consequent care that young children need for their good for you development.[69] Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the physical and mental wellness of children betwixt nativity and eight years erstwhile testify that where the disaster is natural, the rate of PTSD occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 per centum of affected children.[70] Withal, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict atmospheric condition varies from 15 to l percent.[71] [72]

Child protection

A child protection and development center

Child protection is the safeguarding of children from violence, exploitation, corruption, and neglect. Article xix of the Un Convention on the Rights of the Child provides for the protection of children in and out of the home. I of the means to ensure this is by giving them quality teaching, the fourth of the Un Sustainable Development Goals, in addition to other child protection systems.

Child protection systems are a set of ordinarily authorities-run services designed to protect children and immature people who are underage and to encourage family stability. UNICEF defines[73] a 'child protection arrangement' every bit:

the set of laws, policies, regulations and services needed across all social sectors – especially social welfare, education, wellness, security and justice – to support prevention and response to protection-related risks. These systems are part of social protection, and extend beyond it. At the level of prevention, their aim includes supporting and strengthening families to reduce social exclusion, and to lower the take a chance of separation, violence and exploitation. Responsibilities are often spread across regime agencies, with services delivered by local authorities, not-Land providers, and community groups, making coordination betwixt sectors and levels, including routine referral systems etc.., a necessary component of effective child protection systems.

—United Nations Economic and Social Council (2008), UNICEF Kid Protection Strategy, E/ICEF/2008/v/Rev.ane, par. 12-thirteen.

Child abuse and child labor

Protection of children from corruption is considered an of import contemporary goal. This includes protecting children from exploitation such as child labor, kid trafficking and child selling, child sexual abuse, including child prostitution and child pornography, armed services employ of children, and child laundering in illegal adoptions. There exist several international instruments for these purposes, such as:

  • Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
  • Minimum Age Convention, 1973
  • Optional Protocol on the Auction of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography
  • Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children confronting Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse
  • Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict
  • Hague Adoption Convention

Climate change

Children are more than vulnerable to the effects of climatic change than adults. The World Health System estimated that 88% of the existing global brunt of illness is linked to climate change affecting children nether 5 years of age.[74] The Lancet review on health and climate change lists children as the worst-affected category by climate alter.[75] Children are too fourteen–44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors,[76] again leaving them the most vulnerable. Those in urban areas will exist affected by lower air quality and overcrowding, and will struggle the virtually to better their situation.[77]

Children are physically more vulnerable to climatic change in all its forms.[78] Climate change affects the physical health of a child and their well-being. Prevailing inequalities, between and within countries, determines how climate change impacts children.[79] Children accept no voice or attention in terms of global responses to climatic change.[78]

People living in depression-income countries suffer from a higher burden of disease and are less capable of facing climate change threats.[80] Nigh every child in the world is at chance from climate change and pollution. Almost half are at extreme take a chance.[81]

Health

Child bloodshed

World baby mortality rates in 2012.[82]

During the early 17th century in England, about 2-thirds of all children died before the age of four.[83] During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[84] This has connected in England, and in the 21st century child mortality rates accept fallen across the world. About 12.6 1000000 under-five infants died worldwide in 1990, which declined to half dozen.6 million in 2012. The infant bloodshed rate dropped from 90 deaths per 1,000 alive births in 1990, to 48 in 2012. The highest boilerplate infant mortality rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, at 98 deaths per i,000 alive births – over double the world'southward average.[82]

See also

Spoken Wikipedia icon

This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 24 June 2008 (2008-06-24), and does non reverberate subsequent edits.

  • Child actor
  • Child vocalist
  • Child slavery
  • Childlessness
  • Ane-child policy
  • Outline of children
  • Religion and children
  • Youth rights

Sources

  • Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-Past-SA IGO 3.0 License statement/permission. Text taken from Investing against Prove: The Global State of Early Babyhood Care and Education, 118–125, Marope PT, Kaga Y, UNESCO. UNESCO. To acquire how to add open license text to Wikipedia manufactures, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please meet the terms of use.
  • Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 License argument/permission. Text taken from Creating sustainable futures for all; Global didactics monitoring study, 2016; Gender review, 20, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To larn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For data on reusing text from Wikipedia, please run into the terms of utilise.

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